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Źródło: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20221007-how-to-store-data-for-1000-years

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How to store data for 1,000 years

How to store data for 1,000 years

Most current data storage systemssystemy przechowywania danych eventuallyostatecznie, w końcu stop working. But there are alternativesalternatywy, inne możliwości on the horizonw perspektywie, na horyzoncie.

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"You know you're a nerdkujon; nerd when you store DNAprzechowywać DNA in your fridgetwoja lodówka."

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At her home in Paris, Dina Zielinski, a seniorstarszy rangą; wyższy stanowiskiem scientistnaukowiec, naukowczyni in human genomicsgenomika at the French National Instituteinstytut of Health and Medical Research, holds uppodnosi, trzyma do pokazania a tiny vialfiolka to her laptop camera for me to see on our video callwideorozmowa. It's hard to make outdojrzeć, rozpoznać, but she tells me that I should be able to see a mostly clear, light filmcienka warstwa, nalot on the bottom of the vialfiolka – this is the DNA.

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But this DNA is special. It does not store the codeprzechowywać kod from a human genomegenom, nor does it come from any animal or viruswirus. Instead, it stores a digital representationcyfrowa reprezentacja of a museum. "That will last easily tens of years, maybe hundreds," says Zielinski.

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Research into how we could store digital datadane cyfrowe inside strandsnici; pasma of DNA has explodedgwałtownie wzrosło / eksplodowało over the past decadedekada, in the wake ofw ślad za; na fali; w następstwie efforts to sequencezsekwencjonować the human genomegenom, synthesisesyntetyzować DNA and develop gene therapiesterapie genowe. Scientists have already encodedzakodował; zapisał w kodzie films, books and computer operating systemssystemy operacyjne into DNA. Netflix has even used it to store an episodeodcinek of its 2020 thrillerthriller; dreszczowiec series Biohackers.

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The information stored in DNA defines what it is to be human (or any other species for that mattera zresztą; jeśli o to chodzi). But many experts argue it offers an incredibly compactzwarty; bardzo skondensowany, durabletrwały; wytrzymały and long-lastingdługotrwały form of storage that could replace the many forms of unreliablezawodny; niepewny digital media available, which regularly become defunctnieczynny; już nieistniejący and require huge amounts of energy to store. Meanwhile, some researchers are exploring other ways we could store data effectively forever, such as etchingwytrawianie; grawerowanie information onto incredibly durabletrwały; wytrzymały glass beadskoraliki; drobne kulki, a modern take on cave drawings.

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But how long could this data really last, and can we really rely on it to store the reamsmnóstwo; sterty of data now being produced by humanity for posterityprzyszłe pokolenia; potomność?

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As we move towardszmierzać ku a more and morecoraz bardziej digitisedzdigitalizowany world, our reliancepoleganie; zależność on data is skyrocketinggwałtownie rosnący. Films, photographs, webpages, business documents, critical security recordskluczowe dokumenty bezpieczeństwa – everything we use is digitalisedzdigitalizowany, and we are using increasingly more of it.

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Most of the reamsmnóstwo; całe sterty of data we have produced is stored as 1s and 0s on magnetic tapes such as hard drives, but this is far from an ideal solutiondaleko mu do idealnego rozwiązania. For one thing, demagnetisationrozmagnesowanie is a huge issue – permanenttrwały; stały magnets graduallystopniowo lose their magnetic fieldpole magnetyczne over time, so to keep data reliablyniezawodnie; pewnie it's important to rewriteprzepisywać na nowo hard drives every few years. "It lasts on averageśrednio maybe 10 to 20 years, maybe 50 if you're lucky and the conditionswarunki are perfect," says Zielinski.

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Storing data also requires huge data centrescentra danych which use large amounts of energyduże ilości energii to keep things cool – not ideal in a world prone to energy crisesnarażony na kryzysy energetyczne. The problem is seen as significant – the US government's molecularmolekularny information storage (Mist) programmeprogram, launched in 2019, aims to find an alternative toalternatywa dla today's huge data storage facilitiesobiekty do przechowywania danych, for example.

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"We're actually running out ofkończyć się, wyczerpywać się hardwaresprzęt komputerowy. I think that industry can't really keep upnadążać with generatingwytwarzając, generując enough hard disksdyski twarde and serversserwery to store all this data on," says Zielinski.

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But do we really need to keep all this data, and preservezachować, przechowywać, utrzymywać w nienaruszonym stanie it for so long?

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People want to store data for the long termna dłuższą metę; przez długi czas for a huge variety of reasonsz bardzo wielu powodów. One is science – researchers are generating unprecedentedbezprecedensowy, niespotykany wcześniej amounts of datailości danych, and the more they have, the better. Radio telescopes and particle acceleratorsakceleratory cząstek like the Large Hadron ColliderZderzacz Hadronów (LHC) at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (known asznany jako Cern) on the border ofna granicy France and Switzerland, for example, generatewytwarzać, generować reams of dataogromne ilości danych, and scientists want to keep all of it, says Latchesar Ionkov, a computer scientistinformatyk, naukowiec zajmujący się informatyką working on DNA storageprzechowywanie danych w DNA at Los Alamos National Laboratory. The LHC alone produces 90 petabytespetabajty (90 million gigabytes) per yearrocznie.

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Mark Bathe, a professor of biological engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,  co-foundedwspółzałożył the start-up Cache DNA to make biomoleculesbiocząsteczki widely accessible and useful. The global threats facing humanity compelzmuszać; skłaniać us to preservezachować; chronić both human-madewytworzony przez człowieka information, such as art and science, and the DNA of all living thingsorganizmy żywe on the planet, says Bathe. "That way, if life were to either be recreatedodtworzony here or otherwise transferredprzeniesiony; przenoszony or importedzaimportowany; sprowadzony from other planets and so forthi tak dalej, there would be records of what we did, and what we had," he says.

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Many DNA storage researchers believe they have hit onwpaść na the perfect storage mediumnośnik danych for both widespreadpowszechny, szeroko rozpowszechniony and incrediblyniezwykle long-termdługoterminowy storage. We typically view DNA as a way to store genomicgenomowy information, but many researchers are now excited about the possibilitymożliwość of storing the vast quantitiesilości of digitalcyfrowy data currently choking upzapychać data centrescentra danych across the world.

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DNA is a natural choicenaturalny wybór here, says Bathe. "Nature has used DNA for many millenniatysiąclecia to store information in the form ofw postaci genomes," he says. "It's been around [for billions of years], it's something that you can kind of bank onpolegać na. As long aspod warunkiem że that's the fundamentalfundamentalny, podstawowy information storage mediumnośnik, medium of a speciesgatunek, like humans, then it's going to be something that we know what to do with."

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Compare the fact that DNA has been optimisedzoptymalizowany over the last 3.7 billion years or so to the information ageepoka informacji, which really began in the 1950s, says Zielinski. "We've come pretty far in man-made technologytechnologia stworzona przez człowieka, but it doesn't get much better than DNA in terms ofpod względem efficiencywydajność – when we start as one cell, all the instructions are there to direct every single cell until you reach the nearly 30 trillionbilion cells that make upstanowić; składać się na a human."

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What's more, the fact we can recoverodzyskać; wydobyć (np. DNA z materiału) DNA fragmentsfragmenty from million-year-old animals such as woolly mammothsmamuty włochate that deliver meaningfulwartościowy; niosący istotne informacje data about their genomesgenomy shows DNA is incredibly durabletrwały; odporny na upływ czasu, says Zielinski. The half-lifeokres półtrwania of DNA – the time it takes to degradeulegać rozkładowi; rozpadać się by half – is around 500 years in a well-preserveddobrze zachowany fossilskamielina; skamieniałość, which means the DNA would ceasezaprzestać; przestać być to be at all readableczytelny; dający się odczytać after around 1.5 million years.

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However, DNA is incredibly fragilekruchy, delikatny, and the conditions that lead to fossilisationfosylizacja, skamienienie are extraordinarilyniezwykle, wyjątkowo rare. "There are tonnes of ways to destroyzniszczyć it," says Olgica Milenkovic, a professor of electrical and computer engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Humiditywilgotność, acidskwasy, and radiationpromieniowanie all damageuszkadzać, niszczyć DNA. "But if it's kept cold and dryprzechowywany w niskiej temperaturze i w suchych warunkach, it's good for hundreds of years."

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Even better, DNA can be protected by encapsulatingenkapsulujący; zamykający w kapsułce it inside other materials such as glass beadsszklane kulki – mimickingnaśladujący how geneticgenetyczny material is protected within ancient fossilsskamieniałości. Robert Grass, a researcherbadacz; badaczka at ETH Zurich, Switzerland, and his team have shown these beads protect the DNA from both chemicalssubstancje chemiczne; chemikalia and heat.

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Further protection could come from locatingumieszczanie it in a physically safe placefizycznie bezpieczne miejsce. Storing data criticalkluczowy; niezwykle ważny for humanityludzkość in encapsulatedzamknięty w kapsułce / otoczony ochronną osłoną DNA in an ice vaultskarbiec; komora zabezpieczona do przechowywania could mean "it can last forever, pretty much", says Milenkovic.

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Another huge perkplus, zaleta of DNA is that it is incredibly densegęsty; bardzo upakowany store of information, to an extent unmatchedniezrównany by any other man-madewytworzony przez człowieka device. The estimatedszacowany 33 zettabyteszettabajty of data that humans will have produced by 2025 (that's 3.3 followed by 22 zeroes) could be squeezed intozmieszczony w the size of a ping-pong ball with DNA storage, according to Ionkov. He believes storing this much information in DNA could be mere decadesdekady away.

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DNA storage is also unlikely to ever become obsoleteprzestarzały, unlike other man-madesztuczny; wytworzony przez człowieka storage medianośniki danych – "which one of us still uses floppy diskdyskietka?" asks Milenkovic. With DNA, we should always be able to read it. "With every man-madesztuczny; wytworzony przez człowieka technology, you need a new device to read it," says Zielinski. "If DNA is obsoleteprzestarzały, then we have other problems to worry about."

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There are other perksplusy, zalety to DNA storage, too. It has already piggybacked onoparło się na / skorzystało z czegoś już istniejącego research in medical science, such as gene therapyterapia genowa and synthetic biologybiologia syntetyczna, notes Milenkovic, and this will continue as that research advances. It would also use next to no energyprawie żadnej energii to store.

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Of course, there are huge challenges. As one 2018 paper put it, while DNA has "an enormousogromny potential as a data storage deviceurządzenie do przechowywania danych of the future, multiple bottleneckswąskie gardła; ograniczenia such as exorbitantzawrotny; wygórowany costs, excruciatinglypotwornie; niezwykle slow writing and reading mechanismsmechanizmy; sposoby działania, and vulnerabilitypodatność; narażenie to mutationsmutacje or errors need to be resolvedrozwiązane; wyeliminowane".

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The process of convertingprzekształcanie digitalcyfrowy data into DNA basically consists ofskłada się z turning it into a DNA alphabet. DNA is made up ofzłożony z four moleculescząsteczki known asznane jako nucleotidesnukleotydy or bases: adenineadenina (A), cytosinecytozyna (C), guanineguanina (G), and thyminetymina (T), joined together in different sequencessekwencje in a long string. The most common way to turn digitalcyfrowy information into DNA code simply requires convertingprzekształcanie the 0s and 1s of digitalcyfrowy code into these four letters, then synthesisingsyntetyzowanie the DNA to match. 

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"You can use A to representreprezentować; oznaczać, for example, 00; T to representreprezentować; oznaczać 01; G to representreprezentować; oznaczać 10 and C, 11," says Milenkovic. "Then you can take any digitalcyfrowy content that exists classically on a disk or a tape or a flash, and convertprzekształcać; zamieniać it into a four-letter alphabetalfabet złożony z czterech liter / czteroliterowy alfabet."

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DNA synthesis was the method used by the two breakthrough papersprzełomowe artykuły naukowe published in 2012 and 2013 which each stored around 700kB of data in DNA (the previous record was less than 1kB). In a 2017 paper, Zielinksi (then a researcherbadacz / badaczka at the New York Genome Center) and her colleagueskoledzy z pracy / współpracownicy stored a scientific paperartykuł naukowy, one-minute film, computer operating systemsystem operacyjny komputera, computer viruswirus komputerowy and Amazon gift card – totallingłącznie dając / sumując się do around 2MB – on DNA using this method.

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The huge barrierbariera to storing lots of data on DNA, of course, is the cost, which is far higher than storing data on serversserwery or hard disksdyski twarde. It cost Zielinksi $7,500 (£6,729) to store those five digitalcyfrowy items.

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The cost of DNA storage is "a bit of a moving targetcoś trudnego do jednoznacznego określenia; cel/kwestia ciągle się zmieniająca", adds Zielinski, as it depends on the synthesissynteza; wytworzenie (chemiczne) method as well as the encodingkodowanie scheme and how it is decodedodszyfrowany; zdekodowany. A reasonable estimateszacować; szacunek is around a few thousand dollars per megabytemegabajt (MB) to both encode and decode by sequencingsekwencjonowanie, she says.

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To convert this article and its pictures into DNA, for example, would mean initially compressingkompresowanie the data from roughly 20MB to around 500kB, applying an encodingkodowanie scheme, then sending this off to a lab to synthesisesyntetyzować; wytworzyć chemicznie it at a rough costorientacyjny koszt of $1,000 (£897). The lab would complete the laboriouspracochłonny process of making it for me using a techniquetechnika which adds one nucleotidenukleotyd at a time to each string of DNA. "The biggest bottleneckwąskie gardło; czynnik ograniczający is actually synthesising that DNA," says Zielinski. "That's the biggest focus, reducing synthesissynteza; wytwarzanie costs."

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However, the resulting strandsnici / pasma don't need to be perfect. If you're using it for data storageprzechowywanie danych rather than medical proceduresprocedury / zabiegi – which is what DNA synthesissynteza was originally developed for – there could be a higher tolerancetolerancja / dopuszczalny margines błędu for errors. So the door is opendroga jest otwarta for faster, less preciseprecyzyjny methods of synthesissynteza. "You can handle errors in the dataradzić sobie z błędami w danych and still recover your filesodzyskać pliki. And so we can handle a much messierbardziej chaotyczny / bardziej nieprecyzyjny synthesissynteza," says Zielinski.

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To be competitivekonkurencyjny with common digital mediamedia cyfrowe, says Bathe, the cost of DNA storage would have to come downspaść / obniżyć się by a factor of around a millionokoło miliona razy / o rząd wielkości miliona. This is a long way offjeszcze bardzo odległa perspektywa, but scientists are already working to increase how many DNA moleculescząsteczki can be written at the same time. "If you look atprzyjrzeć się / spojrzeć na the electronicselektronika industrybranża / przemysł, they have seen that reductionredukcja / obniżenie in cost," adds Bathe. And the cost of DNA synthesissynteza / wytwarzanie has already fallen significantlyznacząco / istotnie, he says.

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Another option that avoid synthesissynteza altogethercałkowicie; zupełnie is the possibility of storing dataprzechowywanie danych in naturally occurringwystępujący naturalnie DNA that has simply been editedzmodyfikowany; poddany edycji. In 2020, Milenkovic's group editedzmodyfikowany; poddany edycji DNA from the bacteriabakterie E. coli to store US President Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg AddressMowa Gettysburska and an image of the Lincoln Memorialpomnik; miejsce pamięci by creatingtworząc; wytwarzając a punch-cardkarta perforowana system to create holes (actually little nicksnacięcia; niewielkie uszkodzenia out of the nucleotidesnukleotydy using gene editingedycja genów systems such as CrisprCRISPR and other nickingwykonywanie nacięć enzymesenzymy) in the bacteriabakterie's genetic sequencesekwencja genetyczna. This could end upskończyć się / ostatecznie okazać się being far cheaperdużo tańszy than making totally new DNA moleculescząsteczki.

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"It's a completely different paradigmparadygmat, model podejścia – you don't store information in the sequence contentzawartość sekwencji in the compositionskład, kompozycja of ATGCs, you store information in the presence of structuralstrukturalny, dotyczący struktury changes in the double helixpodwójna helisa," says Milenkovic. The original bacteria becomes the reference pointpunkt odniesienia for the code, and no synthesissynteza is needed, which means the process should be cheaper and avoid the toxictoksyczny, trujący byproductsprodukty uboczne associated withzwiązany z synthesising DNA, she says.

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However, the price paidkoszt / cena, jaką się za coś płaci; negatywny skutek here is in the densitygęstość; upakowanie informacji of data that can be stored on a given strandnić; pasmo; pojedyncza nić of DNA. "We estimatedoszacowano; szacunkowy roughlymniej więcej; około a 50-fold loss in densitygęstość; upakowanie informacji [compared tow porównaniu z the DNA synthesis techniquetechnika; metoda]."

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Another experimentaleksperymentalny method for storing data in DNA, reported by Harvard scientists in 2017, involves feeding fragmentsfragmenty of nucleotidesnukleotydy to an already existing DNA strandnić / łańcuch in a living cellżywa komórka, which incorporateswłącza / przyswaja / wbudowuje the DNA fragmentsfragmenty as an immune defenceobrona mechanismmechanizm. The team insertedwstawiono / wszczepiono / umieszczono Eadweard Muybridge's 1878 film clip of a galloping horse into a bacteriumbakteria. "The traceślad is left in a living organismorganizm," says Milenkovic. As long as that organismorganizm exists, including its offspringpotomstwo, the information is stored – although it may become mutatedzmutowany / zmieniony wskutek mutacji over time, alteringzmieniając / modyfikując the information.

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Because we can extractwydobywać; wyodrębniać data from fossilsskamieniałości, says Ionkov, we're pretty sure that DNA storageprzechowywanie danych w DNA can last a long timebardzo długo. "So an interesting question is actually not how long the media, the DNA moleculescząsteczki will last, but are we going to be able tomóc; być w stanie read the data in 1,000 years."

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Ionkov's organisationorganizacja is part of a groupczęść grupy called DNA Data Storage Alliance, which is looking at how we can ensurezapewnić we'll be able to decodeodczytać; zdekodować the data in future centuriesprzyszłe wieki. One of its working groups, the Rosetta Stone Group, is looking at how to create a universal guideuniwersalny przewodnik; wspólna instrukcja for how to read their DNA storage archivearchiwum; zasób archiwalny.

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There are several challenges with reading DNA today. First, you need to sequencesekwencjonować it. This involves using the common molecularmolekularny technique PCR to make trillions of copies of the stretchodcinek of DNA you'd like to decodeodczytać; zdekodować. Unfortunately, this can introducewprowadzać; powodować mistakes. "Many of these errors can easily be handled in the decodingodczytywanie; dekodowanie, when you decodeodczytać; zdekodować that DNA back to your data," says Zielinski.

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Next comes the sequencingsekwencjonowanie itself, and there's a snagproblem; przeszkoda here too. Currently, sequencingsekwencjonowanie is done in table-topstołowy; do ustawienia na stole machines which typically take several hourszajmować kilka godzin to run. So this form of data storageprzechowywanie danych is not exactly a quick-accessszybki dostęp system.

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One thing that would improve these waiting times is "random accessdostęp losowy" – the ability to dip in and outzaglądać od czasu do czasu; korzystać wybiórczo of the data to retrieveodzyskać; pobrać what you are looking for, so you don't have to sequencesekwencjonować the whole lot. This has been demonstratedwykazano; udowodniono with DNA storage systems by adding a "barcodekod kreskowy" to the end of the DNA strandsnici; pasma; łańcuchy.

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However, the current DNA moleculescząsteczki being produced are fairly short – 150 or 200 base pairspary zasad – so using part of this space to simply identify the DNA strandnić DNA via a barcode leaves even less space for writing the data you want to store, says Ionkov. "It's a pretty serious problem. But once the technologytechnologia gets much better and we can write very long moleculescząsteczki with thousands or tens of thousands of nucleotidesnukleotydy [base pairspary zasad], that problem will start disappearing."

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In another method to improve random accessswobodny dostęp, Bathe's team encapsulatedzamknięli w kapsułkach / otoczyli ochronną osłoną DNA strands in silicakrzemionka beadskuleczki / drobne kuleczki labelledoznaczone, opisane using short strands of nucleotidesnukleotydy on the surfacepowierzchnia of the bead. "The same way you barcode products at a supermarket to be able to identify them uniquely, we barcode these little capsuleskapsułki; zamknięte pojemniczki of DNA, using nucleic acidskwasy nukleinowe," says Bathe.

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It's not yet clear how we might integratezintegrować, włączyć do całości information stored in DNA into working computersdziałające komputery. Bathe's team has experimentedeksperymentowało, testowało with creating a file systemsystem plików for the DNA. "That kind of converts the liquid or solid statestan ciekły lub stały of DNA information into something that is more akinpodobny, zbliżony to a computer hard-drivedysk twardy where you have the ability also to search throughprzeszukiwać it with something like a search enginewyszukiwarka internetowa like Google," says Bathe. Even Microsoft is exploring how it could incorporatewłączać, uwzględniać biomoleculesbiomolekuły into computer design.

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However, widespreadpowszechny, szeroko rozpowszechniony DNA synthesissynteza would come with risks. People could try to use it to store other things than data. In theory, people could synthesisesyntetyzować, wytwarzać sztucznie viruses or bacteria, says Zielinski – or even create someone's DNA and leave it at a crime scenemiejsce zbrodni. "There are actually checks in many of these pipelines that generate data that they will cross check it against known genomesznane genomy to make sure there's nothing real in there, nothing harmfulszkodliwy, like a sequence for pathogens," she says.

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Bathe agrees that there are "enormous" privacy issuesproblemy związane z prywatnością and risks. He notes that many companies are seeking to cataloguekatalogować; sporządzać katalog the DNA of everyone on the planet. Others have pointed out how frightening it is to imagine someone being able to hold the DNA sequencessekwencje DNA of billions of humans in a small data storage systemsystem przechowywania danych. "We need to build technologies around it, because if we don't, we won't be able to mitigatezłagodzić; ograniczyć those risks or understand them; it'll be a very unknown and uncontrolled entitybyt; podmiot; jednostka," says Bathe.

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Considering this, it's worth thinking aboutwarto o tym pomyśleć the alternativesalternatywy to DNA data storageprzechowywanie danych. Peter Kazansky, a professor in optoelectronicsoptoelektronika at the University of Southampton, has created an optical storage technologytechnologia przechowywania that he believes is a worthy contenderkandydat; mocny rywal – it can last for millions or even billions of years, he says.

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The team works with femtosecondfemtosekunda (one millionth of one billionth of a second) laser writingzapis laserowy – etchingtrawienie, wytrawianie information onto durabletrwały, wytrzymały silicakrzemionka glass disks using a laser similar to the type used in eye surgery. The intense, short laser pulsesimpulsy are focused in a particular way to create a micro-explosionmikroeksplozja which makes a tiny hole in the glass. "We discovered that in these conditions very tiny nano-structuresnanostruktury could be formed," says Kazansky. "And we use these structures to encodekodować, zakodować information."

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The process is similar to how CD and DVDs are burned using laser light polymerspolimery or dye – but here the structures are tiny and incredibly stable, surviving temperatures up to at least 1,000C (1832F) and undamaged by radiationpromieniowanie, says Kazansky. "One advantagejedna zaleta of [our] storage, the main one, is durabilitytrwałość; it can last almost foreverpraktycznie wiecznie," he says.

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The technology produces information in five dimensions – on top ofoprócz, ponad tym the usual three dimensions created by a hole, the orientationorientacja, ustawienie and shape of the hole can also be controlledkontrolowany, regulowany, allowing denser data storageprzechowywanie danych. This densitygęstość could never approachzbliżać się do, dorównywać that of DNA, but by increasing the number of layerswarstwy in the etchingtrawienie, wytrawiony wzór it is slowly rising.

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So far, documents including the Universal Declaration of Human RightsPowszechna Deklaracja Praw Człowieka, Magna CartaWielka Karta Swobód, the King James BibleBiblia Króla Jakuba – and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the GalaxyAutostopem przez Galaktykę – have all been stored using the technology. In 2018, Elon Musk sent an etchinggrawerunek; wytrawiony obraz; rycina of Isaac Asimov's science fictionscience fiction; fantastyka naukowa series Foundation into space aboardna pokładzie the Falcon Heavy rocket, while Microsoft has stored the entire 1978 Superman film in glass. The artist Mika Tajima has even stored "human emotionludzkie emocje" data using this method – she collected and stored all the tweets posted in Japan in 2020.

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"We use a process similar to what ancientstarożytny; dawny people used – they made marks on stonerobić znaki na kamieniu with tools," says Kazansky. "It's a mechanicalmechaniczny or physicalfizyczny change of materialmateriał. So this kind of physicalfizyczny change or making holes in materialmateriał is a very ancientstarożytny; dawny way of securing information." 

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Similar to DNA storage, one of the main caveatszastrzeżenia, ograniczenia to storing data in this way is writing speed. Kazansky says his team can now write at 500kB per secondna sekundę, up from at most 0.1kB per secondna sekundę in the initialpoczątkowy, wstępny experiment a decadedekada, dziesięć lat ago. "To make it practicalpraktyczny, realny do zastosowania, you need a write speedszybkość zapisu of a million bytes (1,000kB) per secondna sekundę, at leastco najmniej," he says. Another barrierbariera, przeszkoda is reading the data, which currently needs to be done manuallyręcznie using an optical microscopemikroskop optyczny. "To make it practicalpraktyczny, realny do zastosowania, you need to make a machine which will just take the samplepróbka, focus, move and read."

B1

The device used to do the etchingtrawienie; ryt grawerunkowy also currently fills a room, and uses a £100,000 ($112,000) laser, although Kazansky believes the size and costrozmiar i koszt could be brought downobniżony / zmniejszony. And while very durabletrwały, wytrzymały to temperature and radiationpromieniowanie, encapsulatingzamykając w osłonie; kapsułkując the glass in something strongcoś solidnego / wytrzymałego may still be a good ideadobry pomysł for anyone wanting to ensure its longevitydługowieczność; długi okres trwałości – the glass itself could simply be broken with a stone.

B2

"I think the etchingtrawienie (np. szkła), wytrawianie is much less sensitivewrażliwy, czuły to any environmentalśrodowiskowy, związany z otoczeniem conditions," says Zielinski. "So it's not as densegęsty, bardzo zwarty [as DNA], but it's still a very, very efficientwydajny, skuteczny way to store criticalkluczowy, krytyczny data, and you can certainly worry much less about it. Every storage deviceurządzenie do przechowywania danych has its opportunitiesmożliwości, szanse and advantageszalety, korzyści and disadvantageswady, mankamenty. And I think DNA could be complementaryuzupełniający się, komplementarny." 

B2

Other researchers are pursuingbadający / rozwijający (jakąś możliwość) molecularmolekularny options for encodingkodowanie data that don't involve DNA, such as those using chains of other kinds of syntheticsyntetyczny; sztuczny molecules which are easier and cheaper to synthesisesyntetyzować; wytwarzać chemicznie. For example, a code can be created simply by controllingsterowanie; kontrolowanie the mass of individualpojedynczy molecules, with different masses representingoznaczający; przedstawiający different combinationskombinacje; zestawienia of 0s and 1s. 

C1

We already have the ability to encodekodować digitalcyfrowy data into DNA, encapsulatezamknąć w kapsułce; zamknać w osłonie it and protect it for hundreds or potentially thousands of years. The real caveatzastrzeżenie; ważna uwaga here is choosing which data to do this with – or how to overcome the bottleneckwąskie gardło; czynnik ograniczający of DNA synthesissynteza to allow far larger amounts of data to be stored than we have so far. "I'm pretty excited about the DNA being used for storing data, [but] I think we need 20 more years," says Ionkov, although he notes that some companies believe that they will have a viablerealny; wykonalny; nadający się do wprowadzenia product in five years.

B2

Zielinski believes humans will start using DNA in the next five to 10 years to store cold datadane rzadko używane; dane „zimne” that don't need to be accessed often, such as critical financial records or historical data. I ask her if one day we could be printing our own DNA on devices at home. "Absolutely, I think that will happen at some point."

B1